Critiquing Evidence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Critiquing Evidence - Essay Example Cardiac arrest also causes neurological injury through several mechanisms. These mechanisms include reperfusion that leads to reoxygenation injury and perfusion failure which triggers cerebral ischemia. However, hypothermia can reduce the effects of reoxygenation and reperfusion. Hypothermia also decreases the cerebral metabolic rate for oxygen and provides protection against cerebral ischemia. Sometimes, mild induced hypothermia is considered beneficial to the myocardium. A small reduction of temperature affects the micro vascular blood flow in a drastic way. Several animal studies of AMI suggest that myocardial function can be improved through the mild induced hypothermia condition in the absence of cardiac arrest. However, not all the animal studies demonstrate a reduction in the myocardial damage after the induced hypothermia. Â  There are also several feasibility studies which have been performed on several individuals. These patients have undergone a primary PCI after a certai n period, after the induction of hypothermia. These studies also faced certain limitations. Some of the limitations associated with the procedure include the use of less accurate techniques such as the nuclear imaging and measuring equipments. All the studies that have been performed till lately confirm that the effect hypothermia on neurological upshot after cardiac arrest has improved, hence; this has reduced the mortality rate. The authors also talked about some of the predicaments related to the study.

Assignment 2 BA1010 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

2 BA1010 - Assignment Example (Invalid) c. Purchasing decisions are influenced by a consumer’s self-image and desired lifestyle. So, advertising influences purchasing decisions since advertising influences self-image and lifestyle. (Valid) d. Advertisers must try to make potential customers perceive some problem. This is so since problem-solving is the first step in the consumer decision-making process and the first step is probably the most important. (Valid) d. Describe a scenario in which the following sentence is false: Barb retired if and only if she had not saved adequately for retirement. For instance, a mother of three who works as a banker who receives $40K annual income but spends more than what she earns in order to sustain the needs of her family. 8. Symbolize the following arguments then check for validity using a truth table. To simplify, leave the parenthetical parts out of your symbolization. All of the arguments are based loosely on arguments in Chapter One of The Branded Mind by Eric Du Plessis. A. If your client’s purchase was motivated by emotion then it was related to attention. Your client’s purchase was not related to attention. So, your client’s purchase was not motivated by emotion. [You can leave out the parenthetical parts in your symbolization.] B. Either we make decisions in order to feel good or the brain is not in control of our decisions. The brain is in control of our decisions, so we make decisions in order to feel good (and marketers should develop brands accordingly). C. Humans can avoid dissatisfaction in the future (hunger, boredom, loneliness†¦) if and only if consumers plan for future problems. So, either humans can’t avoid dissatisfaction in the future or they don’t plan for future problems. D. Brand choice decisions are based on how a consumer would feel if they decided to buy. If that’s true then the marketer’s job is to manage the feeling that the brain associates with the brand. It follows that the

Defining philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Defining philosophy - Essay Example Philosophy is divided into sub fields since it is very wide and this depends on the sub-field an individual is interested in, for example an individual can study on epistemology, logic, metaphysics and ethics among other sub-fields. A sub-field of epistemology is scope of knowledge such as relationship between the truth and beliefs of certain community or group and how the philosopher can justify one theory depending on how the community or the group perceives it. Skepticism is highly valued in philosophy since it questions the possibility of justifying the truth and still regress the argument, meaning that one must support the argument with another justification. Munchhausen Trilemma perceive the study as a chain of infinitism where the chain of justification can go on forever, the next chain is foundationalism where this chain relies on basic beliefs of individual and lastly is coherentism where the chain keeps on moving in circular manner and the chain has its own chain of justifi cation (Munchhausen 56). The question of epistemology differ from scientific facts since according to scientist that knowledge is true belief that has been given account of by individual, and states that if something is actually known then categorically it is not false. Another question on philosophy according to Thomas berry is the universe being a communication of subjects and not a collection of objects. The foundation seeks to carry out great work of flourishing of the earth community; the theory promotes and distributes ideas on the great work, evening thoughts, the sacred universe, the Christian future and the fate of the earth. Thomas berry perceives the universe as a self-referential reality in the phenomenal world. Thomas terms the universe as text without context. The universe is seen as a story to many and the significance of the story is known, and still the universe story is quintessence of reality. Philosophers and scientist do perceive the story that

Consulting Organizations Like Mckinsey Management Essay

Consulting Organizations Like Mckinsey Management Essay Consulting organizations like McKinsey Company, Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, Boston Consulting Group, not only are leaders in their respective fields of operation but epitomize global reach with their branch offices spread all around the world (Carvalho and Cabral-Cardoso, 2008). Such big consulting organizations though are mostly based in the USA, yet they are present in almost all the economic regions. They are considered the harbingers of new managerial and organizational concepts that enjoy global validity. In view of the unprecedented increase in the number of organizations having potential to internationalize, internationality of management consulting has by itself become a means of competence and eminence (Richter et al., 2008). As such, the general trend in future could be that global companies may increasingly require the services of global consulting houses. Therefore, extending reach of the consulting organizations to international clients could become imperative an d present new opportunities of growing globally (Landriscina, 2012). In the UK, only a few consulting organizations exist that enjoy considerable international clout. This is evident from their foreign operations, including those that render foreign consultancy but do not have any branches abroad. In the UK, most of the consulting companies provide services to small and medium organizations. Their prospects in the international arena, the impediments they face, and the steps that can enable them achieve success and grow internationally, are dealt herein (Graubner and Richter, 2003). Donnelly and Dowling, (2010) said that the substance of earlier case studies brings out that foreign operations just depended on chance and the availability of profitable opportunities, and were not because of systematic strategies of operating globally. As such, overseas assignments were considered temporary and the regions were changed as the opportunities arose because of globalization of clients business operations. However, in certain cases, promotional efforts also contribute to the development of consultancy overseas. Generally, proper planning and diligently developing a foreign market is seldom resorted to (Budhwar et al., 2009). Hurdles in the way of developing external markets by establishing subsidiaries are many, and one can anticipate considerable risks when launching operations in new markets, particularly in BRIC countries, that is, Brazil, Russia, India, and China that have over time acquired much significance. If it is aimed to serve local customers also besides the western subsidiaries, it is essential to comply with the local conditions and employ low-wage local staff. It is only then that an organization catering in consultancy services can function successfully. In case of small and medium consultancy organizations, it is these factors that cause difficulties. ALTOMI ASSOCIATES AND ITS INTERNATIONALIZATION STRATEGY The present case study pertains to Altomi Associates, a UK based organization engaged in providing leadership and management training to client companies located in UK but some of them operating internationally also. As such, Altomi also organizes training programs abroad. Its training programs relate to three sectors, such as manufacturing, retail, and public sector. In the beginning, the training services were catered from the domestic setup, but later the company established bases elsewhere also, housing a small team of administrative staff to meet the requirements of clients at those places. As per Balbinot et al. (2010), it is imperative to evolve an internationalization strategy for a company planning to enter international business since it is an important determinant of success. The significance of meticulously evolved strategy of internationalization depends on diligently conducted market research and appreciation of the true meaning of such a strategy. Altomi Associates plan to spread their business to other countries, particularly in BRIC countries where they anticipate considerable growth opportunities. Altomi Associates intend to forge relationships with existing independent local operators in Brazil, Russia, India, and China as franchisees who would cater their training programs to clients there. In the medium term, they propose to put up offices in those areas either as new start-ups or by taking over local training companies or by forming joint ventures. The ultimate aim is to render training services to MNCs across their global facilities. INTERNATIONAL HRM According to Armstrong (2012), many big MNCs are in a position to ably manage their international operations, such as marketing, technology, and finances. However, there are others who have not been able to manage their HR effectively. IHRM is crucial for MNCs for exercising control and addressing cross-cultural issues, internal as well as external. MNCs face many more problems as compared to domestic organizations on account of geographic distances, cultural disparities, international competition, issues related to language, and political parameters (Harzing and Pinnington, 2010). Stolt (2010) observes that IHRM and HRM do not differ much as their aim is to achieve the same objective of gaining competitive edge for their organizations and in this respect have to confront similar internal and external environmental factors. It is thus necessary for HR managers in MNCs to fully understand the obtaining political environments and legalities concerning labor in host countries. An international HR manager needs to understand the implications of soft and hard HRM as related to domestic business and concerning foreign subsidiaries (Mathur and Gupta, 2011). In case an organization assigns great significance to its employees and places much value to their participation, then the organization is considered to be practicing soft HRM. If the HR manager has adequate understanding of the differences between the two types of HR, then he will be in a position to adopt the right HR policy with respect to each country (Dickmann, 2008). The hard approach, on the other hand, corroborates with strategic HRM, is concerned with reducing costs and is part of the top managements function (Budhwar et al., 2009). Dickmann (2008) describes soft HRM as based on resource perspective of the employees and pertains to egalitarian culture, organic organizational structure, broad particularization of jobs, pay packages as per abilities, sharing of profits, and the existence of a system of direct communication with employees. Hard HRM, on the other hand, relates to such HR policies that follow the prescribed business strategy, practices different approaches as per the categories of workers and according to stringent organizational procedures (Gluesing and Gibson, 2006). Academics, however, have been concentrating on the soft approach for some time. Each country professes characteristics that are specific to it and which have a direct impact on HR practices (Sparrow and Wu, 1997). A UK company establishing a subsidiary in Japan will find it hard to practice soft HRM in that country, as Japanese workers are accustomed to work under hard HRM practices (Barney and Wright, 1997). CONSULTANCY INTERNATIONALIZATION THEORIES The important theories are discussed below: Static theory: This theory comprises such concepts as theory of growth, internationalization theory, and elite system. According to Sparrow (2009), there is no empirical evidence whether these theories are applicable to SMEs since these have been evolved in the context of MNCs. Stage theory: This theory prescribes implementation of the process of internationalization by stages (Harzing and Pinnington, 2010). Several models are available concerning this theory, such as the Uppasla model, network model, and the model related to innovation. The Uppasla model advocates gradual implementation of internationalization over a time with emphasis on step by step learning and understanding of foreign markets (Griffin et al., 2010). According to Collings (2012), the network approach pertains to the impact of the organizations level of internationalization and the extent of internationalization of the target markets. The innovation related model, as per Dowling et al. (2008), states that innovations in management systems determine the successive stage in the internationalization process. International new venture theory: According to Sparrow (2009), this theory deals with organizations that have internationalized from the very beginning or immediately after the start. The consultancy sector differs from other sectors in that it submits to easy pliability and speedy developments as per the demands of the market wherein both small and big organizations exist (FEACO, 2004). The demand for consultancy services has been developing quite fast resulting in their operations reaching across borders. Organizations rendering consultancy services go international due to several reasons. According to Brett and Kern (2006), the main reasons are location of clients, exploring new markets, or the market being a developing one. There are several approaches that can be deployed while internationalizing, such as export, foreign direct investment (FDI), or entering into cross-border collaboration. As per Graubner and Richter (2003), though export is an important component of internationalization, yet organizations are increasingly adopting the route of FDI. Cross-border collaboration is a preferable mode in case of SMEs since they are not in a position to afford the needed resources and are vulnerable to many risk factors (Carvalho and Cabral-Cardoso, 2008). According to Stolt (2010), SMEs not only lack enough resources, but also capital, and managerial expertise. As such, they generally face many hurdles while internationalizing their operations. Such impediments are of three types: liability of foreignness, liability of newness, and the liability of smallness. Therefore, it would be necessary for them to take these liabilities into consideration while internationalizing. As per Graubner and Richter (2003), SME consultancies can also confront the problem of establishing new networks. ISSUES EXPERIENCED IN TRANSFERRING HR POLICIES AND PRACTICES ACROSS BORDERS Schuler and Jackson (2009) consider that organizations operating internationally are often urged to implement HR policies and practices uniformly in all of their global operations. Such a situation arises because of the company having been following HR practices since long in accord with the domestic parameters. It is thus necessary to take into account the domestic as well as foreign country factors while evolving IHRM strategy. There are countries whose laws are oriented to protect employees interests, while many other countries favor employer interests (Griffin et al., 2010). Muller-Camen and Brewster (2008) mention hurdles like lack of experience and understanding, cultural disparity, and inadequate resources that companies generally confront in international markets. As such, it is desirable to implement HR strategies that accord with the legal and political parameters of the host country. IHRM while specifying job profiles and task parameters to be implemented by the foreign subsidiaries, should consider the availability of suitable workers for the specific jobs (Harzing and Pinnington, 2010). Domestic employees having compatible skills and experience can be deployed but it gives rise to issues related to compensation and reward systems (Stolt, 2010). According to Griffin et al. (2010), people recruited from the host country would be ignorant of the parent companys vision, mission, and objectives. FACTORS RELEVANT FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ASSIGNMENT POLICY Complexity of Operations: The complexity comes into play when operations are spread over many countries and employees belong to different nationalities. These two variables play a crucial role in differentiating IHRM and domestic HRM (Schuler and Jackson, 2009). Cultural Environment: According to Pham and Hongyu, (2012), cultural ignorance can generate adverse feelings about the host country and its people and a desire to return home early. Cultural disparities can be interesting only for some time but in the long run may look shocking to the expatriate. People belonging to diverse cultures harbor varying aptitudes, differing dispositions, and dissimilar beliefs (Harzing and Pinnington, 2011). Paying scant attention to these aspects often results in an organizations failure. Richter et al. (2008) advise that an organizations recruitment and related policies should accord with the host countrys culture and HR practices. Working in new cultural environs can create difficulties both for the local workers and the expatriates. Standardizing Pay and Conditions: According to Sparrow (2009), emoluments and working conditions differ from country to country and are influenced by the local market environments. Therefore, MNCs need to ascertain the intrinsic and extrinsic factors obtaining in the host country (Harzing and Pinnington, 2011). A significant task before the IHRM is to evolve viable compensation and reward systems for implementation globally. While evolving an international framework of remuneration and reward, an organization should take into account two basic concerns, the first being that of comparability (Harzing and Pinnington, 2010). According to these authors, remunerations given to workers should not only be internally comparable but also should conform to market environments. The parameters that influence the fixation of remunerations and salaries comprise the accessibility to expatriates and local skilled workforce, the existing wage structure, and the host countrys regulations. Harzing and Pinnington (2011) opine that an organization should apply different parameters for evolving pay system for each country. Altomi Associates need to develop viable reward systems for their local workforce engaged in rendering services internationally and addressing the issues of standardizing pay and conditions. HR STRATEGY FOR ALTOMI ASSOCIATES An organization or its HR setup has more than one action for aligning HR strategy with the local parameters and integrating it globally. There are four main alternatives that can be thought of along with their respective costs. These are: Local Adaptation International strategy: This strategy is appropriate in cases when foreign business is not much and involves transfer of knowledge from central headquarters at insignificant costs. Multinational strategy: In this case the affiliates enjoy autonomy and their systems are oriented towards local conditions. Benefits of cross-border standardization and learning are meager and coordination expense is the lowest. Global Integration Global strategy: This strategy yields benefits on account of standardization of policies and practices, but is highly centralized, lacks responsiveness, faces hurdles due to fragmentation of markets, cultural disparities, policy implications, and entails high costs. Transnational strategy: It accrues benefits resulting from globalization, local adaptation, and simultaneous cross-border learning. However, the expense involved is the highest. In such a scenario, every organization will have to determine its own approach for global integration depending upon the prevailing environments (Harzing and Pinnington, 2011). The approach could vary in case of executive personnel and skilled workers. In todays circumstances, the preferable course of action could be to dispense with local self-determination and domestic country preference (Stolt, 2010). The UK organizations that have achieved success generally followed globally integrated HR policies. Incorporating refinement and effectiveness in the global reward systems, transferring personnel every now and then from one country to another, and instituting training programs with global dimensions, enable transferring crucial expertise, result in achieving speedy transfer of skills, outcomes of innovation, systems of quality control, and cost-effective methods of manufacture (Donnelly and Dowling, 2010). Though at present, the country managers enjoy liberty concerning HR practices, yet the thinking now is to nurture global managers, integrated policies, and foster culture with global dimensions. The suggested HR strategy for Altomi Associates should comprise such a vision and guidelines as are mutually oriented, nurture broad behavior, fosters mutual trust, forges global cooperation. The decision-making process should include decision-making committees that have global perspective, are based on communication between the product, country, and field experts in the network (Carvalho and Cabral-Cardoso, 2008). Suitability of staff should be based on qualification rather than on country of origin (Budhwar et al., 2009). Human resource development should be through international networking and incorporate educational advancement, overseas placement, and flexibility in dealing with issues concerning personal maintenance. The strategy should incorporate appraisal systems and cross-border advancement opportunities that are in tune with the international systems and practices. The strategy should also have a policy that corroborates with the main organizational objectives.

Individuals and Society :: essays research papers

American social institutions treat individuals fairly because people are a threat to themselves, they are a danger to others and without a judicial system there would be mass chaos. Delusion is the main theme in the early twentieth century in â€Å"The Secret Life Of Walter Mitty† by James Thurber when Walter is thrown back and forth between reality and a daydream state. Twenty five years later, Ray Bradbury, presents the schizophrenic views of Albert Brock in the story â€Å"The Murderer.† The most sanely treated patient, however, is seen in the late twentieth century between Doctor Mark Powell and Probe in Gene Brewer’s K-Pax.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Back it up, Mac! Look out for that Buick!† were only some of the preaching’s Mr. Mitty heard during his state of inattentiveness nearly causes several accidents. Another clearly portrayed view that Americans are a danger to themselves is shown by Brewer. Probe went through a tragic event that manifested itself through an altered state of reality and eventually left him as a mindless vegetable.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A risk to others is reinforced by Brock after being arrested for â€Å"murdering† electronics. â€Å"And did you realize in committing these crimes that the wrist radio, the broadcasting transmitter, the phone, the bus radio, the office intercom, all were rented or were some-one else’s property?† Albert reinforces his punishment by boldly stating â€Å"I would do it all over again.† Another high offender to others is clearly shown by the pleas of Mrs. Mitty to slow the car down while Walter, in his unmindful state, drives recklessly down the road.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Without courts or a judicial system, according to Bradbury, there would be â€Å"Pandemonium, riot, and chaos!† This is shown when Albert brings a portable diathermy machine onto a public bus carrying citizens. With a complete lack of concern for others well being Mr. Brock carried this event out. Without due process, Porter’s killing of another man would never have been discovered. After many counseling sessions between Probe and Dr.

Poor security Essay

With the current system there is no specific security policy, therefore the current system is constantly open to unauthorised people gaining access to the data that is held in the filing cabinets. However, the company has an IT Policy that every user has to sign. The current Security Policy states that, â€Å"Members of the IT team are responsible for managing the company’s Technology system. This involves use of administrator password, which provides full access to specific systems. Access to Administrator level password must be treated professionally and ethically at all times. Any IT staff that use an administrator level password to read confidential or personal information (that would not normally be available to them) may be in breach this policy and subject to disciplinary action†. Therefore all users of the database will have password that enables them access to the database. A password is a unique string of characters that a user types as an identification code to restrict access to computers and sensitive files. The system compares the code against a stored list of authorized passwords and users. If the code is legitimate, the system allows access at the security level approved by the IT manager. With all this the database will be secure enough to stay to the rules of the â€Å"Data Protection Act†. This is the 1984 Act of Parliament guaranteeing certain rights to individuals and control of the use of personal data held on a computer. The most well known of the rights is that of examining a computer record held by a- company by the individual in the data record. Why the DPA was brought in The power of the computer During the second half of the 20th century computers were getting more powerful and easy to use. Companies, government and other organisations began to use them to store large amounts of information about people, such as their customers, clients and staff. Databases with this information can be quickly set up, searched, edited and accessed and take up less space than paper records. Personal data on computer Instead of paper records, computers were also being used routinely to keep personal data about people. This information included:- Names Addresses Financial information Medical records Criminal records Employment history For example, being a member of a sports club would mean that your name, age, medical details and payment record would be stored on a computer file. Ease of access to the information The information stored could be far more easily and flexibly used than if it was stored on paper. For example, a database could be searched to find all customers living in a particular area, to target them for â€Å"special offer† advertising. Searches of databases like this are much faster with computers and, in particular, information can be matched from one database to another far more than if it is stored on paper. The Database section has more on searching. Communications networks Storing information about people on computers which are linked to communications networks like the Internet or private company networks has also become important. This allows databases to be used across an organisation and be shared between organisations very quickly. Misuse of information. With more and more organisations using computers to store and process personal information, there was a danger the information could be misused or could get into the wrong hands. Concerns A number of concerns arose about how this information could be used:- Could it be easily copied? Could it be changed with little evidence being left? Who could see this information? How accurate was the information? Was it be possible to build up detailed files on people without their knowledge or permission? The new system is able to make copies of the whole database. To make sure that no information from the database is lost or damaged back up procedures is carried out every night. The reason for this is to protect the data held on the database, which is crucial to both News Shopper and its travel and insurance companies. The backup cycle is carried out automatically each evening at 6pm; this process takes approximately 4-6 hours. This consists of copying all files to disk and then transferred to magnet tape. It is the Systems Administrators responsibility to ensure the rotation of tapes and keep back up documentation up to date.

Psychosocial Theories in Criminal Justice

PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORIES in the APPLICATION of CRIMINAL JUSTICE Mark P. Robertson Deviant Behavior Instructor Tomasina Cook EMPIRE STATE COLLEGE July 30, 2012 There are several Psychosocial Theories pertaining to human behavior. The relation of some of these theories can be directly applied to the Criminal Justice field. Theories focus on why some behavior develops, when and where the development begins, who is affected by it and may be particularly more susceptible, what signs or behaviors to look for, and what may be done to prevent it. Psychologist Terrie Moffitt proposed her Developmental Theory identifying two developmental ‘paths’ or ‘patterns’ in which an individual may exhibit. Moffitt claims that criminal behavior can mainly be classified into one of these categories. Moffitt states that the ‘Life-Course-Persistent (LCP) offender’ continues their antisocial ways and behavior across or throughout all kinds of conditions and situations, and throughout the life course (or life span). This is a developmental path in which the offender shows various psychological and antisocial difficulty, and defiance on a consistent basis at an early age, on through youth and adolescence, and further into adulthood and beyond. It appears as though once LCP’s become involved in a deviant and offensive lifestyle they continue and increase their offending as they grow older. Young children as LCP’s often show evidence of this developmental ‘path’ in ways such as wild temper tantrums and mood swings, to biting and hitting. As adolescents, LCP’s show signs such as truancy, shoplifting and substance abuse. This may seem like rather common or somewhat ‘normal’ behavior for many younger individuals, and in many cases it is. However, when the young person or adolescent does not ‘grow-out’ of this phase or behavioral ‘pattern’, it can progress into adulthood. The adult LCP may often develop such behavior as robbery, rape, child abuse, even murder. Adult LCP’s show high levels of antisocial behavior, and are almost exclusively male in gender. You can read also  Justice System Position Paper The offending might even escalate, with the offenses and behavior becoming more violent in nature, more erratic, and unpredictable. As stated earlier, some criminal behavior may be seen or viewed as relatively ‘normal’ behavior for younger individuals, especially males. In fact, most young individuals do ‘grow-up and out’ of this, and choose (whether voluntarily or involuntarily) another developmental pathway. They may offend or display some type of criminal or ‘bad’ behavior as children, adolescents, or young adults, but usually stop in their late-teens to early twenties. Terrie Moffitt states that these ‘youths’ are ‘Adolescent-Limited (AL) offenders’, and these individuals usually do not have or display the early developmental, persistent antisocial, or problem behavioral histories as their LCP counterparts. However the case may be, there is an occasional commonality between LCP and AL youth. Often times, the frequency and severity of offending among LCP and AL youth, is ‘mirrored’. The patterns of offending between them can be almost identical, but with the onset of young adulthood looming near, these patterns then abruptly change. For many reasons, the AL youth realizes that continued offending will not lead to any sort of positive outcome, and he or she then stops. Ultimately, when applied in a criminal justice setting, Moffitt’s developmental theory of the LCP person and the AL person shows that the AL ‘criminals’ or ‘delinquents’ have the ability, or at the very least, are more likely to regain control of their lives. They desist in their malevolent and/or devious behavior when they begin to mature and evolve into a more social, conventional, realistic, and ‘acceptable’ person. The LCP ‘criminal’ or ‘delinquent’ maintains their malevolent behavior, possibly and usually escalating into a more antisocial, unpredictable and dangerous person. LCP’s generally have long histories wrought with aggressive and violent crimes, with genuine ‘disregard’ for legality, posing as a ‘threat’ to everyone. Psychologist Erik Erikson proposed another theory of Psychosocial Development, which focuses on ‘Stages’. He states that each stage plays a major role in the development of personality and psychological ‘skills’. Erikson says there are a series of eight stages, coinciding with infancy to late adulthood, in which a person experiences different ‘challenges’. Each stage requires the successful completion of the prior stage to move onto the next, otherwise incomplete stages may reappear in the future and pose potential problems. However, absolute perfection or mastery of a stage is not necessary. Erikson’s developmental stages are as follows: 1. Hopes: Trust vs. Mistrust (Oral-Sensory, Birth – 2 yrs) 2. Will: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Muscular-Anal, 2 -4 yrs) 3. Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt (Locomotor-Genital, Preschool, 4 -5 yrs) 4. Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority (Latency, 5 – 12 yrs) 5. Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 13 – 19 yrs) 6. Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 20 – 24, or 20 – 40 yrs) 7. Care: Generativist vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 25 – 64, or 40 – 64 yrs) 8. Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65 – death) In regards to Erik Erikson’s developmental theory of the ‘Stages’, there is particular importance in relation to the criminal justice field. Stage 5, (Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion) plays a key role in psychosocial ability and behavior. ‘Identity’ is unique to every individual. There may be a distinct correlation between identity and why some people stray from the ‘norms’ of society and venture off into a life of deviant or criminal activity. This is especially true when it involves young people. Young people/persons are quite easily influenced, and impressionable. It is a very critical and important time in one’s life, trapped somewhere between childhood and adulthood. It is a period of extreme change, extreme choices, and big decisions. Lack of one’s own identity, confusion, and the need and desire to belong, or to ‘fit in’ somewhere, can and often does provoke irrational thought. The inability or difficulty to become accepted by one’s peers gives way to potentially ‘bad’ choices. This can be especially difficult for certain cultural, ethnic, and societal groups. For example, inner-city youth (regardless of race) who grow up in areas with higher crime rates and/or criminal activity, or lower-income families (many with only one parental figure) are by default, at higher risk of ‘exposure’ to criminal activity. They in essence, have little or almost no chance of meeting or interacting with (or being influenced by) someone from the suburbs, or the country (rural areas), where criminal activity is lower. These inner-city youths are more frequently exposed to crime (it is sometimes all they see and know), and without ‘positive’ influence, they are more susceptible to adopt an ‘identity’ relative and according to what they experience on a regular basis. They believe that is the ‘norm’ and in turn, they tend to lean towards what they believe. Rather than having no identity at all, and having the desire to ‘fit in’ somewhere, they naturally fall into place. Unfortunately, the choice(s) for these youths are often very limited, and this is a major problem. This may be a reason why Hans J. Eysenck developed his psychosocial development theory of Personality and Crime. Hans J. Eysenck’s theory is regarded as one of the most influential psychological perspectives on crime today. (Cale, 2006) Eysenck states that criminal behavior is the result of an interaction between certain environmental conditions and certain features of the nervous system. In other words, certain types of personalities, combined with certain types of surroundings, lead to certain types of criminal activity. This equates to a perfect combination of attributes which are a recipe for juvenile, delinquent, and/or criminal behavior. This theory is unlike most contemporary theories of crime, because Eysenck heavily emphasizes that genetic predispositions are largely responsible for antisocial and criminal conduct. Theoretically, some people are just ‘born different’ from the majority of the population, and their genetics result in their inability to adapt and conform to society’s rules, regulations, and expectancies. Therein lays the problem. To assist Eysenck in measuring different variables of, and predisposure to commit crimes and offenses, he developed several ‘questionnaires’. The best known questionnaire would be the British Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI). Additional editions would be the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI), the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised (EPQ-R). These questionnaires can be very helpful in providing researchers with valuable insight on how personality traits may coincide with criminality however it is not yet ‘conclusive’ research. Although Eysenck’s theory of Personality and Crime cannot be definitively proven, it is still worth looking at. Criminal justice practitioners would be wise to examine and contemplate its useful and unique suggestions. While there are still several theories on psychosocial development to be discussed, Gerald Patterson’s ‘Coercion Developmental Theory’ is in alignment with Terrie Moffitt’s theory. Patterson states and believes that ‘early starters are at greater risk for more serious criminal offending’. (Bartol and Bartol, p. 65) Patterson theorizes that while early starters are at greater risk, he focuses on how the parents and their roles with their children are more important, and much more instrumental. Essentially when young children experience different types of ‘traumatic’ events (e. g. ivorce, family violence, inconsistent parental discipline), they are prone to or are at greater likelihood to begin using or displaying ‘coercive behavior’. Coercive behavior can become the child’s way of avoiding or escaping his or her immediate (parental, social) environment. This ‘coercive’ behavior could be as minor or u nassuming as lying, temper tantrums, or whining. Eventually this coercive behavior becomes the child’s ‘go to’ strategy to obtain the desired result(s) he or she wants. If left unchecked, or uncorrected by parents, the problem behavior can be prolonged, well into adolescence and on to adulthood. You can read also King v Cogdon Therefore, parents need to gain and maintain control, in a non-threatening, non-demanding, appropriate way, as early as the coercive behavior is recognized. Summarizing that society has no shortage of people with some type of developmental disability that inhibits or prohibits their behavior, it can usually be traced back or down to its source. In conclusion, the theories discussed here can assist in narrowing down the ‘root’ causes of or perhaps the reasons why some individuals seem to veer astray from societal normality. Whether the causes or reasons are psychological, developmental, or environmental in nature, criminal justice practitioners can utilize these theories to evaluate, and possibly explain the behavior of those in question. REFERENCES, NOTES, and CITATIONS 1. Criminal Behavior: A Psychosocial Approach, 8th Edition, By: Bartol and Bartol 2. Generalist Case Management: A Method of Human Service Delivery, 3rd Edition, By: Woodside and McClam 3. Online Research on Juvenile Delinquency and Criminal Behavior http://www. fbi. gov. juveniledelinquency. icr